Study Questions for Armstrong’s Short History of Myth

Chap. 1: In what way is a myth true?

Why are there different versions of the same myth?

Chap. 2: Since Palaeolithic peoples left no records of their myths, what evidence can we find for their myths?

What do you think this quotation means? "The purpose of a myth was to make people more fully conscious of the spiritual dimension that surrounded them on all sides and was a natural part of life."

Why did people very early on begin to personify the sky?

What is a shaman?  What function did he serve in ancient hunting societies?

What is logos and how is it different from myth?

Why were ancient myths usually recited in ritual settings like initiation rites?

How is the Greek hero Herakles "a relic of the hunting period"?

Chap. 3: 

What is it about farming that seems miraculous and mysterious?

Why might Neolithic farmers have engaged in sex when planting their crops?

Why were some Mother Goddesses from the Neolithic period also vengeful and bloodthirsty?

Why does the author say that "mythology is not escapist"?

How does the myth of the death of Dumuzi, Inanna's husband (also known as Tammuz and Adonis) relate to agriculture?

Why did agriculture and the myths that were told about it give rise to "a new, if qualified optimism"?

Chap. 4:  Why did the myths of the early urban civilizations concern "the endless struggle between order and chaos"?

How did the biblical writers view cities and civilization?

What did a Mesopotamian ziggurat symbolize?  (Be sure you know where Mesopotamia is!)

What was the difference between flooding in Mesopotamia and in Egypt?  How would this difference affect Mesopotamian myths?

How does the myth of the creation of the Babylonian gods and humans reflect the development of the Mesopotamian city?

Why was the Babylonian creation myth Enuma Elish recited at the beginning of every New Year?

Why is the sacrifice/death of a giant or god seen as necessary in some creation myths?

What does the Babylonian hero Gilgamesh learn from his journey?  How is this myth different from earlier, god-centered myths?

In sum, how did early urban life change mythology?

Chap. 5:  To be continued

Study Aids for Homer's Odyssey

The abbreviations ll. and ff. mean lines and following.  So if I refer to ll. 36 ff. in Book 1, look at line 36 and a few lines following it.  Also, note that our translator provides a useful Pronunciation Glossary in the back of the book.  Use it!

1. These are important names in the first four books of the Odyssey. What family relationships (for ex., husband and wife) or political relationships (for ex., allies in war, king and subjects) exist among them?

Antinous     Athena         Calypso        Eurymachus        Helen        Hermes      Menelaus    Nestor

Odysseus     Orestes      Penelope      Pisistratus      Poseidon     Proteus     Telemachus      Zeus

2. Which characters in the list above are gods? How are gods different from humans in the Odyssey?

BOOK 1:

ll. 36 ff.: The story of Agamemnon as Homer tells it is this: Agamemnon and his brother Menelaus, also called the sons of Atreus or Atrides, went to the Asian city of Troy leading armies from many Greek lands to regain Helen, Menelaus’ wife, who had been stolen by the Trojan prince Paris. (Son of Atreus or Atrides is a patronymic, that is, a person’s name made from the name of his/her father.) While the Greeks were away fighting the war for 10 years, Agam.’s wife Clytemnestra took up with his cousin Aegisthus, who wanted revenge against the family for the terrible deeds of Atreus, Agam.’s father. When Agam. returned home triumphant from the defeat of Troy, Aegisthus killed him and became king with Clytemnestra as his queen. Orestes, Agam.’s son, sent away as a boy by his mother during his father’s absence, returned home after Aegisthus had ruled for 8 years and avenged his father’s murder by killing both Aegisthus and Clyt.

Why is Telemachus so often reminded in these first 4 books of Orestes’ revenge? How is his situation different from Orestes’?

ll. 121 ff: Note the various supernatural powers of the gods, like Athena’s ability here to appear as someone else. In the Odyssey, people’s names often have significant meanings, so here, Mentes means mind, thought.

l. 147: Note that Athena is often called Pallas Athena. Pallas is her epithet, that is, a descriptive word that has become a part of her name. Pallas means virgin, maiden.

l. 88: Note where Penelope ordinarily stays.

p. 90: The 2 main suitors, Antinous and Eurymachus, speak for the first time in the poem. What sort of man is each? Antinous means against life, spirit or perhaps, opposing spirit.

ll. 96 ff.: Note Penelope’s famous trick to hold off the suitors. What is a shroud? Do you agree with Antinous that Penelope is to blame for the suitors’ long stay?

ll. 164 ff.: "a sign..." Eagles were considered the kings of birds, so they were seen as the birds of Zeus, king of gods and men. Anything an eagle does here is considered meaningful.

ll. 198 ff.: What does Eurymachus’ speech tell us about him?

ll. 272 ff.: What does a third suitor Leocritus warn here?

ll. 300 ff.: Athena as Mentor literally becomes Telemachus’ mentor or guide.

Find Ithaca on the map, pp. 68-9, and then find Pylos on the map, pp. 70-1, to see where Telemachus goes on his journey. Then look for Sparta, where he goes in Book 4.

What are Nestor and his people doing when Telemachus arrives? Note that Nestor’s people welcome the strangers without knowing who they are. When do they finally ask the strangers their names? This shows how the ancient code of hospitality should work.

ll. 146-52: When Nestor tells Telemachus about the aftermath of the defeat of Troy, he leaves out the reason why Athena was angry with the Greeks: Odysseus and Diomedes stole her sacred statue, the Palladium, from Troy. Omitting this sacrilege allows Nestor to praise Odysseus.

ll. 169 ff.: Follow Nestor’s voyage home on the map on pp. 70-71.

ll. 218 ff.: Nestor knows about Agamemnon’s bloody homecoming and Orestes’ revenge. Note how he uses it as a lesson for Telemachus.

ll. 238 ff.: Why does Nestor think that Telemachus will overcome the suitors?

ll. 314 ff.: What happened to prevent Menelaus from getting home right away?

ll. 341 ff.: When DID Menelaus get home? So then, why would it be a good idea for Telemachus to visit Menelaus also?

ll. 411 ff.: How will Telemachus get to Sparta, where Menelaus lives?

ll. 420 ff.: Why does Nestor promise to sacrifice "a yearling heifer" to Athena? (What’s a heifer?)

ll. 451 ff.: Ancient audiences loved stories with lots of details, as in this description. Such details teach us much about ancient life, at least during Homer’s time.

ll. 451 ff: Who goes off to Sparta with Telemachus? Why?

What’s happening at Sparta when Telemachus and Pisistratus arrive? Note how they all greet the two strangers.

ll. 68-72: How can Menelaus tell that the two strangers are "no mean men"?

l. 85: "the red-haired lord" is Menelaus.

ll. 87 ff.: What did Menelaus do while he was "eight years out" on his way home from Troy?

ll. 100 ff.: Why is Menelaus sorry he ever went to Troy?

ll. 112 ff.: "Achaean" means Greek. Note which of the Greek heroes Menelaus singles out as the best.

ll. 134 ff.: The beautiful Helen, for whom the Trojan War was fought, comes in. What does she immediately notice about Telemachus?

l. 243: What does Helen slip into the wine? Why?

ll. 267 ff.: How does the story that Helen tells about Odysseus also make HER look good?

ll. 298 ff.: How does the story that Menelaus tells about Odysseus make Helen look?

l. 364: Reread line 106 in Book 3.

ll. 370 ff.: How does Menelaus react when Telemachus tells him about the suitors?

ll. 389 ff.: "The Old Man of the Sea" is Proteus, a seagod who can change shape at will. From his name, we get the English word protean. How does Menelaus overcome Proteus and get him to tell the future? Proteus also tells him about the fates of some of the other Greek heroes. What details does he add to the story of Agam.’s murder? What about Odysseus? Where is he?

ll. 703 ff.: Meanwhile back in Ithaca, what are the suitors plotting?

ll. 760 ff.: How does Penelope find out that her son has gone travelling?

ll. 893 ff.: Why and in what shape does Athena visit Penelope?

Note that Book 4 ends on a note of suspense: Will the suitors kill Telemachus?

BOOKS 5-8: Important names in these books: Alcinous, Arete, Nausicaa, Scheria, Phaeacians

l. 1: Dawn for the Greeks was a goddess wed to the human Tithonus.

l.15: Calypso is a sea nymph, a minor goddess. Her name means engulfing, submerging.

ll.33 ff.: What specific prophecy does Zeus make here about Odysseus?

l. 47: The epithet of Hermes is Argeiphontes, giant killer, because he killed Argus, a giant with a hundred eyes.

ll.65 ff.: Note the great natural beauty of Calypso’s home and how hospitably she welcomes Hermes.

ll. 103-04: The gods eat ambrosia and drink nectar, heavenly foods.

ll.130 ff.: Why is Calypso upset at Hermes’ message? What does she say is the usual fate of the men whom goddesses choose as their lovers?

ll.164 ff.: What is our "hero" doing when we first meet him? Note how he responds to Calypso’s words. What does his response tell us about him?

204-04: The most binding oath a god can make is by the river Styx, the river in Hades, land of the dead.

228 ff.: Calypso asks Odysseus what any rejected lover might ask. Note how diplomatic Odysseus’ response is. Reread line 106 in Book 3.

l. 309: Who is Poseidon? Why is he angry with Odysseus?

338 ff.: Why does Odysseus wish he had died at Troy?

371: What’s a shearwater? Use a dictionary.

391 ff.: How does Odysseus react to Ino’s advice? Remember how he reacted to Calypso’s offer to let him leave?

pp. 164-66: Note how Odysseus THINKS his way out of the sea.

l. 489: The Greeks believed that every river held a resident god. Why do you think they believed this?

l. 167: How does Odysseus protect himself, naked as he is?

p. 168: Who USED to be the Phaeacians’ neighbors? Why did they migrate to the island of Scheria?

p. 169: The ancients only did laundry for special occasions, such as here for a possible wedding.

ll. 110 ff.: In their "game of ball," the princess Nausicaa stands out like Artemis, the virgin goddess of the hunt of the moon. Gods were thought to be much taller than humans.

p. 172: What wakes Odysseus up? What is his dilemma here?

pp. 173-74: How does Odysseus’ address to Nausicaa show us his cleverness and tact?

ll. 204-32 : Why does Nausicaa say she will help Odysseus?

ll. 251 ff.: How does Athena here help Odysseus?

pp. 176-78: Why does Nausicaa NOT take Odysseus in her wagon into town? What does she advise him to do instead?

pp. 180-81: How does Athena help Odysseus when he comes into town?

ll. 61 ff.: Ancient audiences loved to hear a character’s genealogy. There were far fewer people in the ancient world than there are today, and one way to know everyone was through their ancestry. Why is it the queen Arete, not the king, whom Odysseus should seek out?

pp. 182-83: What are some unusual things about the Phaeacians’ palace and gardens beyond?

ll. 167-69: Odysseus here assumes the standard ancient posture of the suppliant. If you are begging a favor of someone powerful, why would you clasp her/his knees?

ll. 212-15: Note what Alcinous says about the rights of suppliants. Reread ll. 227-29 in Book 6.

ll. 234 ff.: How are the Phaeacians special?

pp. 186-190: The Phaeacians’ sense of hospitality vies with their desire to know who Odysseus is. Note that he does not answer Arete’s direct and rather impolite question, "Who are you?" Why is he so secretive about his identity?

In this book, we see the wider hospitality of the Phaeacians as they fete Odysseus with song, games, dancing, and feasting. And they don’t even know who he is!

ll. 70 ff.: Note how the "faithful bard" Demodocus is treated. Traditionally, poets, like Homer himself, were thought to be blind, perhaps to hear better the inner voices of inspiration.

ll. 99 ff.: It was not considered unmanly to weep under the stress of strong emotion. In fact, a man who could weep on such occasions showed he had a great heart.

pp. 195-98, esp. ll.201-05: Handsome is as handsome does. Odysseus is just as quiet about his abilities as he is about his name. Why?

p. 199: Note how tactful Alcinous always is. What does he say his people are better at than athletic games?

ll. 295-413: Demodocus next sings a more light-hearted song, this one about the adulterous love affair between Aphrodite, goddess of love and sex, and Ares, god of war. Aphrodite’s ugly husband Hephaestus, god of blacksmiths and fire, catches the lovers in flagrante delicto, much to the amusement of the other gods.

ll. 432-71: Odysseus arrived in Scheria naked,. What will he leave with?

ll. 535-40: Why does Odysseus honor the bard Demodocus here?

pp. 207-08: Note that Odysseus ASKS for a song that will move him to tears.

pp. 209-10: Why MUST Odysseus finally tell the Phaeacians who he is?

BOOKS 9-12:

1. These are the important names in Books 5-12 of the Odyssey. Identify each briefly in your journal as you read. Which are places? Which illustrate the theme of hospitality?  The theme of appetite and proper vs. improper eating?

Aeolus     the Cicones    Circe    Hades    Helios    Ithaca    the Laestrygonians 

     the Phaeacians      Polyphemus      the Sirens     Scylla and Charybdis      Tiresias     Thrinacia          

2. On the time-line handed out in class, list the main adventures in Books 1-12 of the Odyssey in CHRONOLOGICAL order, starting with the fall of Troy and ending with Odysseus' homecoming.

3. Choose one of Odysseus' adventures from the tale he tells the Phaeacians. In a long paragraph, say what aspects or features of his character are revealed to us by his words and actions in that adventure.

SUMMARY of The Odyssey, Books 13-21 and 24:

Odysseus also sees his wife again as she comes down from her quarters to dazzle the suitors and ask them for gifts, which they bring. Because the “beggar” might have news of her husband, Penelope asks to talk to him, and in Book 19, we watch husband and wife converse as strangers. Penelope does not recognize him. She then asks an old servant woman, who was Odysseus’ childhood nurse, to bathe the beggar as thanks for his “news,” but in washing his feet, the old woman sees Odysseus’ telltale scar that he received from a boar in a boyhood hunt with his grandfather. Here Homer inserts a reminiscence on Odysseus getting his name. Odysseus prevents the old nurse from revealing his identity, even to Penelope, who then proposes to the suitors the Contest of the Bow. That night, Odysseus tells Telemachus to remove all the weapons hanging in the banquet hall and lock them in the storeroom so only he will have a weapon. Later, trying to sleep on the porch, Odysseus is tormented at the sight of 12 of his maid servants going off to sleep with the suitors.

The next day, for the contest, Telemachus sets up 12 axe heads in a row on the ground with their hanging holes aligned: whoever can string Odysseus’ bow and then shoot an arrow through all 12 axe heads will win Penelope’s hand. Meanwhile, Odysseus reveals himself to Eumaeus and another faithful cowherd. Several suitors try but fail to string the bow. Then the “beggar” asks to try. Though the suitors insult him again, Telemachus asserts his authority and lets the “beggar” try. After examining the bow and stringing it on one try, Odysseus, standing in the room’s only exit, plucks the bowstring as a sign of the suitors’ coming doom. In fact, throughout these books, there are a great many omens and prophecies foretelling the imminent arrival of Odysseus. No one, including Penelope, believes them, except, of course, Telemachus and Odysseus himself.

READ BOOKS 22-23.